The Concept Of Spirituality Sociology Essay

The Concept Of Spi rituality Sociology EssayThat trust has both a positive and negative effect on hu macrocosm creation behaviour is widely accepted (Batson, Scoenrade and Ventis, 1993 Paloutzian and Park, 2005 Zinnbauer and Pargament, 2005). Psychology has an important role in understanding the basis of belief, cons legitimate and behaviour, (Emmons and Paloutzian, 2003), which suggests that how it is taught and how power is apporti unityd should be guardedly considered particularly if, as suggested, holinesss argon authoritative weird traditions. Despite receive splendour and contradictory effect on gentlemans gentleman behaviour theology re primary(prenominal)ed a fringe look area for the first seventy quint old age of the 21st Century and barely much it was nonexistent in the re await activity of Psychology between 1930 and 1960 (Emmons and Paloutzian, 2003 Gor such(prenominal), 1988). A suggestion for the non evolution of the landing field of righteousness sug gests that the emerging sun deepen(prenominal) science wanted to distance it ego-importance from its philosophical fathers and their occasional radical theories nearly organized devotion, in all(prenominal) its throws were non need to the full compatible with the modernist scientific paradigm that was emerging (Gorsuch, 1988 Hood, pitchers mound and Spika, 2009). In increase Emmons and Paloutzian, (2003) commented on their tendency to avoid taboo subjects.Despite the fact that holiness was ignored by psychologists, rules of orders changing attitude towards theology has been cited as having occurred simultaneously with two historical events. Durkheim date assumeed that both the French Revolution and the industrial Revolution which in addition marked the rise of democracy and ad hominem freedom, instigated the happy chance down of the social classes which g all overned holiness thence leading to the young rules of order questioning of blind faith, (cited in Pals, 19 96). The hippie season which emerged in the mid-sixties opened up stark naked possibilities to a rebellious youth that initiated a social turn to new come on thoughts. Roberts (2004) suggested this to be a secularisation in the evolution of devotion, since the pre-industrial age had been a period when religion was set by governing bodies, whilst the industrial era featured a ghostlike comparison with early(a) organisation and finally the post industrial era marked identification as apparitional sort of than ghostly. The post industrial age excessively marked the establishment of religion as a someonealise system of meaning which suggests this was the beginning of a transformation of devoutness hitherto, the scientific establishment had not transformed its views of religion and spiritualty. McPhillips (2002) considers this return to spiritualism in the form of new age and religion as a reaction by social club to secularisation and a societal search for re-enchant ment which has been lost through individualism. and church property is still world viewed from the westward positioning and does not explain the transformation of what is practiced. Further more than(prenominal)(prenominal) it also assumes that easterly religions which are newly practiced in the west retain the selfsame(prenominal) original meaning and are expressed and practiced the same as by the original practitioners. When the field of honor of religion did re-merge in the 1960s with a new group of questioners their prime interest was prejudiced behaviour rather than religious behaviour it marked the rise of the measurement paradigm which became the main method of study of religion.Problems do exist with the study of religions and spiritualism. Gorsuch, (1988) suggested explore in religion is at high risk of individualised distortion. The lack of tuition demonstrates that the study of devotion has been socially managed, which indicates that politics are a factor, implying that the study remains in the realm of imperialism patronage the global consciousness base on as suggested by Durkheim (date cited in Pals, 1996). The effect of a individualised agenda is again indicated through the resistance to the addition of spiritism indoors the statute title of APA division 36 psychological science of religion (div 36). Its rejection is not base on empirical evince just rather a take that spirituality is fashionable (APA div 36, 2005) and has not amassed the same large embody of evidence that its religious counterpart has done and therefrom did not duly thirst any credit. However, the westerly purpose of religion marginalises spirituality, which includes much older easterly religions but again without empirical evidence (Dubuisson, 2003). The fashionable term new age, which is practically the banner under which spirituality is defined has in reception to this emerging negative view, moved a trend from the use of new age according to Lewis, (1992) who moreover suggests that no new label should be found. A move away from the new age concept only could deport both positive and negative effects on the study since it volition allow the integration into spirituality of suitable forms of belief and encounter until now without the label they are difficult to locate .Interestingly Humanist psychology Div 32 puts a far greater emphasis on spirituality and bifurcates it from the supernatural, which it claims is the domain of religion (Elkin, 2001). Another key factor which needs to be considered when studying religion is a participants susceptibility to answer questions according to societal previsions or norms that is not only in relation to practices but also regarding personal experiences, (Batson, Scoenrade and Ventis, 1993). The study of religion became mainstream inside psychology by the mid-eighties which was marked by a plethora of books world published besides spirituality didnt emerge in mainstream s eek or in the title of any published books until the year 2005. what is more, Lewis (1992) suggests the overall consciousness of the general semipublic has altered and this diverseness has escaped the attention of psychologists who find it easier to conduct inventories indoors defined groups rather than addressing the general alteration of spiritual commonsense compositions. This general change in the consciousness has led to a crossover of the line of what is practiced such as avocation(a) a traditional religion and practicing yoga. Without taking this change into account inventories are flawed. However what one person defines and argues to be rational could be another persons irrationality, (Gorsuch, 1988) which is particularly important when considering these scales since the subjectivity of rationality is particularly line up battle cryable to the complex character of religion and spirituality. march onmore as cited in Gorsuch, (1988) Colins (1986) suggests that a neutral objectivity of religion is difficult particularly since neutrality for some religions is regarded as world anti-religious. A further issue is that experience is also subjective and ill defined, (Hood, Hill and Spika, 2009). For some individuals it is considered to be out there and tangible whilst for others experience includes what in truth occurs within the wit, (Reber and Reber, 2001). Gadamer defines cosmos experienced as radically undogmatic The man knows that all foresight is limited and all plans uncertain. In him is realised the true value of experience. Further experience is defined as, openness to new experience and symbolic of a search for new acquaintance lack of expectation of having attained eventual(prenominal) knowledge. (Gadamer, Weinsheimer and Marshall, 1989 p351)In the past twenty five years the study of holiness has flourished (Emmons and Paloutzian, 2003) and is very much added as a defining shifting in much empirical enquiry, (Gorsuch, 1988). Th is is true particularly in dealings to psychological and physical wellbeing as Emmons and Paloutzian, (2003) suggest the applied areas of clinical, counselling and health meet taken the lead in the study of think with religion which has instigated a move forward in the understanding of the importance of religious and spiritual behaviour in relation to physical and mental health. However the study of religion in relation to social psychology is relatively new (Emmons and Paloutzian, 2003) since little is known about why or how people are religious or spiritual or about the criteria by which their choices are made and as a result the understanding of experience has not improved per se.The observational access assumes that social situations are always objective and concepts such as Religion, and religiousness are out-there time lag to be measured with religion as the umbrella term. Spirituality, which is considered more as an individual quest, is marginalised and considered to be associated in some unknown way to religion but it is far too subjective to be studied scientifically. lively social psychologists however, suggest social innovations are always subjective even when a person is mindlessly acting according to stereotypical societal norms and heuristics, furthermore it is their claim that social norms put up been purposefully created and are evolving passim history (Stainton-Rodgers, 2003). Formalised religion requires group cohesion and quarternot exist without society (Pals, 1996), and it was Freud (1927) who suggested that the individual is the enemy of society since society flourishes when individuals suppress their personal wishes which further indicates why spirituality is marginalised within traditional religions. The individual pursuit of religion is further criticised by the suggestion that the quest for spirituality outside the manakin of religion is motivated by narcissism, (Hood, Hill and Spika, 2009) however, the humanist approach considers the inborn core of religion to be the spiritual experience which is dressed up in the language and symbols of a culture or belief system (Elkins, 2001). Experimental queryers further claims that personality, attitudes and identities are stable and discourse is a true reflection of them. Even though a infobase search reveals more than gravitational constant papers relating to religion, it is rarely the focal point of the studies and often only one item measurement is used, (Gorsuch, 1988) which doesnt take religion seriously and rarely features in a review of the literature thereby suggesting even more un-quantifed research is available.Using ,the method of questionnaires the measurement paradigm created 125 inventories, (Hill and Hood, 1999) to define and split up religious prospects and activities with a view to understanding religion and spirituality more fully, however much confusion still remains and the number of assorted inventories furthers this confusion. R ather than consolidating existing research, researchers have devised new inventories instead of adapting old ones which suggests that individually paper is establish on a unalike description of religion, (Emmons and Paloutzian, 2003) therefore due to a lack of consensus there is an excessive amount of data available but virtually no theories have been formulated. Hill, (2005) suggests that no new scales should be created until greater clarity is understood. This range of scales has increased an understanding of accomplished westward religious behaviour, however an understanding of spirituality and experience chamberpot only have decreased since it is more subjective in nature and when taking into account it more ancient origins. Zinnbauer and Pargament, (2005) observe that spirituality encompasses not only religiousness but also many other concepts of spirituality both formal and informal. What can be established from this lack of consensus is that an ultimate consensus is ne cessary or at least as Emmons and Paloutzian, (2003) suggests a minimum consensus however parameters maybe easier to establish. Further criticism that inventories have received is due to their narrow understanding of what religions experience entails, that they do not recognise unconventional practise which have been categorised as new age despite many such as Buddhism and Hinduism including yoga having much more ancient origins, not taking into account cultural differences or supernatural experiences which questionnaires cannot adequately measure. Belzen and Hood, (2006) have suggested a move away from the measurement paradigm. A new textile has been proposed the multilevel interdisciplinary paradigm which controls all levels of research from all domains, and promotes the betrothal of all data and for non reductive assumptions to be made, (Emmons and Paloutzian, 2003).The theory behind this research stems from critical social psychology which considers concepts such as Religio n, Gender and sex activity as socially situated, which Faucault, (1971) suggested has been constituteed by society through the use of regulations and technologies of the self which are used to self regulate. Durkheim (cited in Pals, 1996) in relation to society, called it mechanised Solidarity. This sprawling approach was used by Edley and Whetherell, (1997) who explored the socially situated wind of masculinity. Through analytic thinking a repertoire emerged of the new man however a reference point remained of traditional values also in the discourse suggesting them to be the master and slave while constructing their identicalness. pile (cited in Stainton-Rodgers, 2003) suggested the self to be made up of the I self as knower and the Me self as known however another construct of the self, the inter-subjective self (Stainton-Rodgers, 2003) doesnt divide the self quite as simply as James, but incorporates what Mead (1927) called the reflective self. It considers the self to b e subject to inter-subjectivity, made from the following elements reflectivity (reflective on their own behaviours), joining (interrelated to others and society), intentionality (purposeful and strategic), being-in-the-world (constantly influenced socially and contextually) or as James suggested a dynamic flow of consciousness that is constantly being changed moment by moment.This dynamic self was explored in the transcripts of Diana Princess of Wales interview by Abel and Stokoe, (2001) who found she constructed an inner true self and outer royal self which were reconciled as an ambassador for the people however she constructed two selves in very different ways suggesting that the experimental inventory method of questionnaires cannot fully capture the nature of identity. Not only has the identity of self been deconstructed by critical psychologists but also the concepts used for membership categorisation such as religion, sexuality and sexual activity, masculinity and feminism. Many suggest that the study of Religion and Spirituality is incompatible with the scientific method (Bateson, Schonrade and Ventis, 1993) however both incorporate the study of identity which critical psychologists also suggest is incompatible with the experimental method (Stainton-Rodgers, 2003) a first step however is to employ that which has been missing to date, namely a universal understanding of both religion and spirituality by either definition or set parameters.A meandering(a) discussion of the definition and distinctions between religion and spirituality originated when, Starbuck (1899), defined spirituality as an instinct, whereas James (1902) considered religion in relation to pragmatics and defined religion and spirituality as macrocosmal and personal religion respectively. Maslow (1976) the Humanist introduced convertible descriptions, those being organised religion and personal spirituality however his approach suggested an innate human need rather than free exit of behaviour. Maslow further considered spirituality to be naturalistic rather than super natural which is in contrast to the psychology of religion that regards spirituality as being pore on the un-measurable supernatural. A major feature of traditional religion is the following of teachings and a moral code however different forms of spirituality also have an intrinsic learning system (Lewis, 1992). Hall, (1904) considered religion more as a moral code and the facilitation of education of the young. Cognitive developmental research has suggested that children in keeping with Piagets stage theory have a concrete understanding of religion but not until the teenage years and more importantly, if ever, do humans develop an abstract symbolic understanding of religion, (Gorsuch, 1988) though there is very little research. In 1912 Leuba found 48 different definitions of religion (cited in Batson, Schoenrade and Ventis, 1993) with the diversity of religion and spirituality therefore it i s not surprising that no single definition is in existence. Zinnbauer and Pargament, (2005) reviewed several definitions and call the situation a flux over meaning.In debate over the eddy of spirituality Pargaments defines spirituality as Sacred (1999a 1999b) with Emmons and Crumpler, (1999) differentiating sacralisation as both an internal and external sanctification the internal being the transformation of persons to become divine and pure and external sanctification as that of places, people and objects with the emphasis still being placed on god and religion. McPhillips, (2002) considers the sacred to have been created due to a need for enchantment however it is still based on western practices. Furthermore, this taps into the gender debate since religion predominates with sacred masculinity of God, Jesus, Mohamed, Buddha, for manikin whereas spirituality incorporates that of a feminine energy, sacred goddess, or a divine mother. Lee (2000) who considered spirituality in re lation to feminism cited Ferguson, (1995) who claimed women are anomic by a masculine dominated religion which however suggests that all religions and spirituality are engendered. However as Lee (2000) suggests when spirituality is considered within the feminine domain there is a susceptibility of merely reiterating the gender division rather than creating a rebalance. Spirituality however generally refers to both genders, Hinduism has both gods and goddesses and Buddhism refers to the un-gendered Buddha within. Stifoss-Hanssen, (1999) considered focusing spirituality on sacred to be more subjective than necessary and related more to an individuals personal definition of their religion rather than a general explanation implying that what is deemed sacred to one person, is not necessarily sacred to another. Stifoss-Hansen, (1999) claimed that Pargament, (1999) uses general terms intentionally to eliminate forms of spirituality which entirely exclude religion. Having disregarded the concept of sacred Stifoss-Hanssen (1999) argued spirituality as existential and related to meaning, placing spirituality as the more global term. Zinnbauer in, Zinnbauer and Pargament, (2005) concur with the global difference however defined and differentiated the search for the sacred by religion being within a traditional framework. However Pargament in the same paper remained with religion but considers spirituality as the search for the sacred and religion as a search for the consequence in ways to sacred.Batson, Schoenrade and Ventis, (1993) proposed different definitions for lock and substance. This split in the definition of function and substance implies that by defining and stateing between religion and spirituality an ideologic dilemma exists between its use and content. Further examples of potential ideological dilemmas appear in Zinnbauer and Pargament, (2005) which they refer to as the rise of opposite and polarisation. The rise of spirituality (Hill et al, 2000 Zin nbauer and Pargament, 2005) religion is being described as substantive, static, institutional, objective, belief-based and bad and unlike to spirituality which is conceived as functional, dynamic, personal, subjective, experience-based and redeeming(prenominal). However this viewpoint maintains the imperialist, westernised concept of religion and spirituality as spirituality didnt necessarily rise, rather the scientific study of religion finally recognised spiritualities prior construction. Dubussion (2003) claims religion is a western invented concept, which influences the way religion is defined by constructing western religions as true and thus marginalising eastern religions which do not conform to the western ideal. Wulff (1997) suggested that what had occurred was a change of reference to religion from a verb to a noun. Religion has been defined by Reber and Reber, (2001) an institutionalised system of belief or traditional pattern of ritual and ceremony and is considered to have been devised due to the innate need to understand the human condition. This definition draws on the suggestion that religion is a belief based doctrine and implies any doctrine not only traditional western religious but any form of doctrine should be considered a religion, so a distinction between western Religion and eastern spirituality is not suitable since many forms of spirituality also acquit doctrines. Reber and Rebers, (2001) definition further conceives religion as a function of a meaning system which places religion as a function of essentialism (Paloutzian and Park, 2005). Stifoss-Hanssen, (1999), however considers spirituality a function of a meaning system. Robert (2004) claimed the emerging American return to religion and the emergence of the new age is based on a new search for personal meaning rather than a general, implied and instructed societal meaning system which suggests that not all cultures are at the same evolutionary point with regard to understandi ng religion and spirituality. James (1902) highlighted the importance of context to meaning and suggested that experience rather than institution should be studied since institutions are a product of experience whereby suggesting a spiritual focus on substance rather than function. Furthermore Zinnbauer and Pargament, (2005) revised the possible distinction to religion as being reduced to its static function and spirituality as dynamic. However a search for meaning (function) does not indicate that the use of religion gives meaning (substance) or what is eventually accomplished by experience is meaning. It may simply be that meaning is the idea that draws some participants in (function) and their experience (Substance) is something else or vice versa depending on the individual. Furthermore there is no evidence that the sole function of religion or spirituality is for the purpose of meaning or that as the Humanists assume, there is a need for meaning.Following on from the meaning sy stem, Lewis (1992) suggests spirituality as a social and individual transformation however the transformation of both society and the individual may not solely have a spiritual basis since one may be affected by the other. Furthermore no one single model of transcendent reality can be chosen to define spirituality, (Reich, 2000) although transcendent reality can be defined as one concept which explains the experience of spirituality. In the UK the research on eastern spirituality is conducted by (BPS subsection) transpersonal psychology which draws on the human-centred aspects of the debate. Both transformation and transcendence focuses on the individual, which is another factor that often emerges in debate which could be considered as just one aspect of spirituality. Transpersonal psychology does however also incorporate the self help and mind, body and spirit concept which incorporates a how to concept which can still be considered a doctrine that would draw aspects of it closer t o religion as strange to spirituality. Furthermore religious experience could be suggested to also incorporate personal transformation (Lewis, 1992) this adds to the argument that both religion and spirituality have a learning focus.Other concepts emerge however within the debate machine-accessibleness (Emmons et al, 2003 Hill and Pargament, 2005 Paloutzian and Park, 2005 Pargament, 1999a Reich, 2000 Stifoss-Hanssen,1999) is a major concept used to construct spirituality (Keisling et al, 2006 Knight, 2002 Lee, 2000 2007 Lee and Marshall, 2002 Person, 2002) although what is connected is not so clear cut. Reich, (2000) suggested the connection to be to others, nature and a high being whereas Lee (2000) found that participants in feminist spirituality constructed connectedness as to the feminine goddess however by connecting to the feminine it doesnt discriminate the possibility of other connectedness or claim that this form of spirituality was for everybody. There is also some use of combination which is constructed as collective of many different forms. Lee and Marshall (2002) further propose links between spiritual oneness and popular cultures such as the rave scene of the 80s and DIY culture whereby lack of need for personal gain is constructed as spiritual enough however many other popular activities can be linked such as the flashy zone (Douillard, 2001) gifts such as music, writing and art which are often considered to occur with a connection to something else are often called a muse.The concept of religious instinct, that Paloutzian and Park, (2005) constructed as a compulsion, Lee and Marshall, (2002) suggest is the spiritual construction of instinct as a different kind of knowing which uses the vehicular body not just the mind and further as a way of connecting the body and mind and an initiation of transcendence and accessing embodied knowledge and connection to a universal energy (Lee and Marshall, 2002). Hinduism is a particularly good example of this construction together with its incorporation of yoga, as well as meditation within spirituality. Elkin, (2001) also claimed one of the characteristics of spirituality is a shadowy energy, Reich, (2000) called it a higher being and points out that in religion the higher being is god. Dubussion (2003) suggested everything religious to be defined as cosmographic formations which suggests connections through cosmic alignment.Traditional and non-traditional Religions are much better concepts in order to distinguish traditional western religion from spiritual religion such as, new age and eastern religions and spirituality could be defined as experience whether religious, non religious or spiritual. Emerging factors of religion and spirituality rather than a definition are as follows finding or receiving meaning, religious institution and spiritual self, belief system, doctrine, teaching system and moral code, experience is more closely aligned with being spiritual, and behaviours being distinguished as religious or spiritual. Emerging interpretative repertoires specific to spirituality are as follows transcendence, transformation, connectedness, instinct, embodied knowledge, higher energy or being rather than specifically a god.There is a dearth of research into spirituality, which is holding butt its acceptance as being equal to Religion in research. The discursive debate of interpretative repertoires does not however explain their usage and construction. Engler, (2005) claimed constructionist translation in the form of discursive discussion of spirituality is weak but plentiful but adds little to the understanding and constructionist research in the form of discursive analysis is strong but in short supply. What is unavoidable is strong constructionist work, which considers how spirituality is constructed, however to ignore Religion when considering spirituality is not beneficial. A discursive analysis of the experiences of spirituality is required cons idering how people construct their spiritual identity and the identity of spirituality.This study has considered the constructive qualities of religion and spirituality, which have emerged from the literature and has found key themes of gender, power and being or doing. Religion is strongly influenced by following a doctrine and by doing religion putting faith in a powerful higher being whereas spirituality is described more by being spiritual and connected and the power coming from within however contradictions in research into mind body and spirit literature also suggests a doing rather than being activity which perhaps is what is confusing the meaning of what spirituality entails. This research will explore what is the nature of spirituality and factors affecting it through discursive analysis of semi-structured interviews with those practicing a particular form of non-institutionalised, non-organised earth based spiritual activities. question questions/aimsExploring the meaning of spirituality, and the possible relation to gender and power and how participants construct their identity as a spiritual being.Contrasting peoples experiences of spirituality with psychological research into religious experience and body, mind and spirit.Bring a new perspective to the study of spiritual experience and exploring possible difference between being and doing spirituality.